Looking for Novel Natural Gels to Improve Cleaning Methods for Bronze Leachates on Marble.

Marble is one of the materials most susceptible to copper leaching, resulting in easily identifiable turquoise stains on the marble. This problem is particularly relevant when we are talking about marble structures of heritage value. For this reason, conservators look for cleaning materials that are specific to the structure to be treated without damaging the original surface. Materials such as agar have been studied for a long time. Agar creates a controlled water release system that adapts to the needs of conservators who seek the greatest possible cleanliness without damaging the material to be treated. To improve the cleaning, chelating agents such as EDTA are added to the agar composition. However, the microbiological growth and the damage it produces to the original material are disadvantages to take into account. In order to solve these problems, other natural materials with cleaning potential such as kudzu and konjac gels were studied in combination with other chelating agents such as citrate, oxalate, and gluconic acid. For the characterization and evaluation of copper cleaning, various analytical techniques were used, including Raman spectroscopy, colorimetry, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In this study, both konjac and kudzu emerged as promising alternatives to agar, revealing distinctive features such as simplified preparation methods and inherent antimicrobial properties. The EDTA chelator was found to be the most harmful for marble surfaces, as it extracted a greater amount of calcium from the marble during application of the gels doped with it. Citrate and gluconic acid have been identified as a promising substitute to prepare doped gels for the removal of copper stains. These compounds exhibit comparable or potentially superior cleaning capabilities than EDTA, with no negative side effects.

Geochemical characterization of the Martian analogues Enekuri and Fruiz, located in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin, by spectroscopic techniques.

This work presents the geochemical characterization of two Martian analogues located in the Basque-Cantabrian Basin: Enekuri and Fruiz. In contrast to previous works carried out on the coastline analogues Meñakoz and Armintza (Biscay, Spain), these new outcrops are not in contact with sea-water nowadays. Hence, the weathering processes observed in Enekuri and Fruiz (inland) are different from those observed in Armintza and Meñakoz (coastline). In this way, among all the mineral phases found the only ones in common between inland and coastline outcrops are albite and chlorites, minerals that were formed in aqueous conditions. Understanding the differences presented in both types of outcrops could help to interpret the future results from the missions Mars2020 and the ExoMars2022, since coastline outcrops are affected by sea-water weathering and inland outcrops are altered by the high biological activity.

Study of Micro-Samples from the Open-Air Rock Art Site of Cueva de la Vieja (Alpera, Albacete, Spain) for Assessing the Performance of a Desalination Treatment.

In this work, some micro-samples belonging to the open-air rock art site of Cueva de la Vieja (Alpera, Albacete, Spain) were analysed. These samples were collected after and before a desalination treatment was carried out, with the aim of removing a whitish layer of concretion that affected the painted panel. The diagnostic study was performed to study the conservation state of the panel, and to then confirm the effectiveness of the treatment. Micro energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction were employed for the characterization of the degradation product as well as that of the mineral substrate and pigments. The micro-samples analysis demonstrated that the painted layer was settled on a dolomitic limestone with silicon aggregates and aluminosilicates as well as iron oxides. The whitish crust was composed by sulfate compounds such as gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) with a minor amount of epsomite (MgSO4·7H2O). An extensive phenomenon of biological activity has been demonstrated since then in almost all of the samples that have been analysed, and the presence of calcium oxalates monohydrate (CaC2O4·H2O) and dehydrate (CaC2O4·2H2O) were found. The presence of both calcium oxalates probably favoured the conservation of the pictographs. In addition, some carotenoids pigments, scytonemin (C36H20N2O4), and astaxanthin (C40H52O4) were characterized both by Raman spectroscopy and by X-ray diffraction. Hematite was found as a pigment voluntarily used for the painting of the panels used in a mixture with hydroxyapatite and amorphous carbon. The results of the analyses of the samples taken after the cleaning treatment confirmed a substantial decrease in sulphate formation on the panel surface.

Metals and metalloids in high-altitude Pyrenean lakes: sources and distribution in pre-industrial and modern sediments.

High-altitude Pyrenean lakes are ecosystems far from local pollution sources, and thus they are particularly sensitive to the atmospheric deposition of metals and metalloids. This study aims to quantify the effect of human activity in 18 lakes located in both side of the France-Spain frontier. Sediment cores were collected in summer 2013, sampled at a 1cm resolution and the concentration of 24 elements was measured by ICP-MS. Statistic and chemometric analysis of the results highlights the influence of the geographical position and lithogenic features of each lake basin on trapping pollutants. More than the 80% of the lakes showed values of enrichment factor (EF) above 2 for at least one of the elements investigated in at least one core interval, which corroborates the existence of historical anthropogenic inputs of elements in the studied area. The results demonstrate the natural origin of As and Ti in Pyrenees, together with the significant anthropogenic inputs of Cd, Pb, Sb and Sn from ancient times. The data set points mining activities as the main historical source of pollution and illustrate the large impact of the industrial revolution. The regional variability could reflect also differential long-range transport, followed by dry or wet deposition.

Compositionally and density stratified igneous terrain in Jezero crater, Mars.

Before Perseverance, Jezero crater's floor was variably hypothesized to have a lacustrine, lava, volcanic airfall, or aeolian origin. SuperCam observations in the first 286 Mars days on Mars revealed a volcanic and intrusive terrain with compositional and density stratification. The dominant lithology along the traverse is basaltic, with plagioclase enrichment in stratigraphically higher locations. Stratigraphically lower, layered rocks are richer in normative pyroxene. The lowest observed unit has the highest inferred density and is olivine-rich with coarse (1.5 millimeters) euhedral, relatively unweathered grains, suggesting a cumulate origin. This is the first martian cumulate and shows similarities to martian meteorites, which also express olivine disequilibrium. Alteration materials including carbonates, sulfates, perchlorates, hydrated silicates, and iron oxides are pervasive but low in abundance, suggesting relatively brief lacustrine conditions. Orbital observations link the Jezero floor lithology to the broader Nili-Syrtis region, suggesting that density-driven compositional stratification is a regional characteristic.

Analytical Techniques Applied to the Study of Industrial Archaeology Heritage: The Case of Plaiko Zubixe Footbridge.

In this work, micro-Raman spectroscopy and micro-energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (µ-EDXRF) were applied on microsamples taken from the Plaiko Zubixe footbridge (1927) located in Ondarroa (Basque Country, Spain) in order to investigate the original paint coating and make an evaluation of the conservation state before its restoration. Elemental and molecular images were acquired for the study of the compounds distribution. Some modern pigments such as phthalocyanine blue and green pigments, minium, calcium carbonate, Prussian blue, and hematite were identified. Barium sulfate and titanium dioxide were recognized as opacifier agents. Thanks to the study of the stratigraphies, it has been possible to determine the original paint layer, which includes lead white, ultramarine blue, carbon black, and barium sulfate. In addition, colorimetric analyses made it possible to know the CIELab values of the original layer in order to reproduce the original colour during the planned restoration work. The massive presence of chlorine detected by µ-EDXRF and the corrosion products of the rust layer, in particular akaganeite and hematite, highlighted the atmospheric impact in the conservation of the bridge because they were due to the effect of both marine aerosol and to the presence of acidic components in the environment coming from anthropogenic activity. This work demonstrated the usefulness of a scientific approach for the study of industrial archaeology heritage with the aim to contribute to its conservation and restoration.

Improvement of Oil Valorization Extracted from Fish By-Products Using a Handheld near Infrared Spectrometer Coupled with Chemometrics.

A handheld near infrared (NIR) spectrometer was used for on-site determination of the fatty acids (FAs) composition of industrial fish oils from fish by-products. Partial least square regression (PLSR) models were developed to correlate NIR spectra with the percentage of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and, among them, omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) FAs. In a first step, the data were divided into calibration validation datasets, obtaining good results regarding R2 values, root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) and bias. In a second step, all these data were used to create a new calibration, which was uploaded to the handheld device and tested with an external validation set in real time. Evaluation of the external test set for SFAs, MUFAs, PUFAs and ω-3 models showed promising results, with R2 values of 0.98, 0.97, 0.97 and 0.99; RMSEP (%) of 0.94, 1.71, 1.11 and 0.98; and bias (%) values of -0.78, -0.12, -0.80 and -0.67, respectively. However, although ω-6 models achieved a good R2 value (0.95), the obtained RMSEP was considered high (2.08%), and the bias was not acceptable (-1.76%). This was corrected by applying bias and slope correction (BSC), obtaining acceptable values of R2 (0.95), RMSEP (1.09%) and bias (-0.05%). This work goes a step further in the technology readiness level (TRL) of handheld NIR sensor solutions for the fish by-product recovery industry.

Ionogel-based hybrid polymer-paper handheld platform for nitrite and nitrate determination in water samples.

Nowadays, miniaturization and portability are crucial characteristics that need to be considered for the development of water monitoring systems. In particular, the use of handheld technology, including microfluidics, is exponentially expanding due to its versatility, reduction of reagents and minimization of waste, fast analysis times and portability. Here, a hybrid handheld miniaturized polymer platform with a paper-based microfluidic device was developed for the simultaneous detection of nitrite and nitrate in real samples from both, fresh and seawaters. The platform contains an ionogel-based colorimetric sensor for nitrite detection and a paper-based microfluidic device for the in situ conversion of nitrate to nitrite. The platform was fully characterized in terms of its viability as a portable, cheap and quick pollutant detector at the point of need. The calibration was carried out by multivariate analysis of the color of the sensing areas obtained from a taken picture of the device. The limits of detection and quantification, for nitrite were 0.47 and 0.68 mg L-1, while for nitrate were 2.3 and 3.4 mg L-1, found to be within the limits allowed by the environmental authorities, for these two pollutants. Finally, the platform was validated with real water samples, demonstrating its potential to monitor nitrite and nitrate concentrations on-site as a first surveillance step before performing extensive analysis.

Reviewing in situ analytical techniques used to research Martian geochemistry: From the Viking Project to the MMX future mission.

The study of space has always been a field of great interest and thus space missions are becoming more and more ambitious with time. Therefore, with the 50th anniversary of the first spacecraft to land on Mars, a review about how traditional analytical techniques have been adapted to the era of in situ space exploration is presented. From the Viking Project to the future MMX mission, the techniques used for the in situ study of the geochemistry of the Martian surface is described. These techniques have been differentiated according to the type of analysis: elemental and molecular. On the one hand, among the elemental analytical techniques the XRF, APXS, ISE and LIBS stand out. On the other hand, GCMS, TEGA, MBS, XRD, Raman and IR spectroscopy have been the molecular techniques used in the missions to Mars. Miniaturization, real-time measurements, automation, low power consumption and reliability of operation under extreme conditions are some of the major challenges that analytical chemistry has faced as a result of the technological and scientific requirements of space missions. In this way, this review gathers all the in situ analytical techniques that have reached the surface of Mars onboard landers or rovers with the aim of studying its geochemistry.

Non-Destructive Analytical Investigation of Decorative Wallpapers Samples of the Nineteenth Century before Their Restoration.

In this work, decorative wallpapers (19th century) from an historical palace located in Oiartzun (Basque Country, Spain) were analyzed before their restoration. Micro-energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy were used to investigate the elemental and molecular composition of pigments, the presence of binders, and the state of conservation of the paper support. The aim of the investigation was trying to understand the possible degradation pathways and identify the raw materials in order to choose the best restoration protocol according to the original aspect of wallpapers. As stated from both the elemental distribution and the identification of mineral phases by Raman spectroscopy, the most used pigment was lead chromate. It was mixed with other pigments such as ultramarine blue, zinc chromate, hematite, and atacamite among others to obtain different shades and they were applied mixed with an animal glue. Brass, identified thanks to elemental micro-EDXRF maps, was employed as a shiny decorative element. In addition, a partial degradation of cellulose was detected due to its natural ageing, the acidic nature of lignin, and to a phenomenon of humidity of the walls. Probably the deposition of black particulate matter was the cause of the darkening of the painting surfaces.

Development of a novel method for the in-situ dechlorination of immovable iron elements: optimization of Cl- extraction yield through experimental design.

The conservation of iron objects exposed to marine aerosol is threatened by the formation of akaganeite, a highly unstable Cl-bearing corrosion phase. As akaganeite formation is responsible of the exfoliation of the rust layer, chlorides trigger a cyclic alteration phenomenon that often ends with the total consumption of the iron core. To prevent this degradation process, movable iron elements (e.g. archaeometallurgical artefacts) are generally immersed in alkaline dechlorination baths. Aiming to transfer this successful method to the treatment of immovable iron objects, we propose the in-situ application of alkaline solutions through the use of highly absorbent wraps. As first step of this novel research line, the present work defines the best desalination solution to be used and optimizes its extraction yield. After literature review, a screening experimental design was performed to understand the single and synergic effects of common additives used for NaOH baths. Once the most effective variables were selected, an optimization design was carried out to determine the optimal conditions to be set during treatment. According to the experimental work here presented, the use of 0.7 M NaOH solutions applied at high temperatures (above 50 °C) is recommended. Indeed, these conditions enhance chloride extraction and iron leaching inhibition, while promoting corrosion stabilization.

Interrelationships in the Gypsum-Syngenite-Görgeyite System and Their Possible Formation on Mars.

Calcium sulfates are known to be potential reservoirs of organic compounds and have been detected on Mars. However, not all data that indicate the presence of sulfates collected by the Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) and Curiosity rover can be explained by the different calcium sulfate polymorphs, and therefore, mixtures of calcium sulfates with other single sulfates must be considered. In addition, the presence of mixed calcium sulfates supports the data and indicates that the molar ratio of sulfate/calcium is >1. To obtain adequate spectroscopic information of mixed-cation sulfates to be used in the interpretation of data from Mars in the next few years, the thermodynamically stable syngenite (K2Ca(SO4)2·H2O) and görgeyite (K2Ca5(SO4)6·H2O) mixed-cation sulfates have been studied along with the interrelationships in the gypsum-syngenite-görgeyite system to understand their possible formation on Mars. Raman spectroscopy and Visible-Near Infrared-Shortwave Infrared (VisNIR) spectroscopy have been used for their characterization to increase the databases for the two future Mars exploration missions, Mars2020 and ExoMars2022, where both techniques will be implemented. These VisNIR data can also help with the interpretation of spectral data of salt deposits on Mars acquired by the OMEGA and CRISM spectrometers onboard the Mars Express and Mars Reconnaissance orbiters. This work demonstrates that syngenite (K2Ca(SO4)2·H2O) easily precipitates without the need for hydrothermal conditions, which, depending on the ion concentrations, may precipitate in different proportions with gypsum. Furthermore, in this study, we also demonstrate that, under hydrothermal conditions, görgeyite (K2Ca5(SO4)6·H2O) would also be highly likely to form and may also be identified on Mars together with syngenite and gypsum.

Geochemical Characterization of the NWA 11273 Lunar Meteorite Using Nondestructive Analytical Techniques: Original, Shocked, and Alteration Mineral Phases.

A lunar feldspathic breccia meteorite, the Northwest Africa (NWA) 11273, was analyzed to compensate the lack of scientific data available about its mineralogy and geochemistry. In order to obtain a deeper characterization of the sample, a strategy based on the combination of nondestructive spectroscopic techniques such as X-ray fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy is used. Both techniques are being used in spatial missions by the Perseverance Rover, so their combination in the laboratory is here proposed as an optimal strategy to study the complete mineralogy of the sample. In addition to finding the minerals indicated by the Meteoritical Society (anorthite, olivine, pyroxene, kamacite, and troilite), other minor minerals were identified, such as zircon and ilmenite, which are minerals related to the Moon geology, as well as calcite and sulfate which can be considered products of terrestrial weathering. Finally, secondary minerals related to alteration processes were also found, such as hematite, quartz, and anatase. In this work, the alteration processes that gave rise to the detected secondary minerals have been proposed.

Spectroscopic-assisted archaeometric studies to determine the production technology of the VI BC Zeus Enthroned statue (Paestum, Italy) and Pre-Roman technology transfer.

This work summarizes the spectroscopic-assisted archaeometric study of the most important terracotta statue of Poseidonia-Paestum (Italy), the so-called Zeus Enthroned (VI sec. BC). The selected analytical strategy combines the mineralogical and molecular information provided by X-Ray diffraction (XRD) and Raman analysis with the elemental data obtained from X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) and Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled to Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (SEM/EDS). To shed light on the raw materials used to create and decorate this unique artwork, the analytical results gathered in this study helped disclosing the applied production technology. As suggested by the detected mineral assemblages, the body was prepared in two steps, using calcareous clay (CC) rich in Mg- and Fe- minerals as raw materials. The inner core and the outer depurated layers were both fired in oxidizing conditions but reaching different temperatures (≥900 °C and 850-900 °C respectively). The statue was decorated by firing manganese- (jacobsite MnFe2O4) and iron- (hematite Fe2O3) oxides in oxidizing conditions. Knowing that the decoration techniques based on the use of Mn-oxides were mastered by Etruscans rather than by Ancient Greeks, the obtained results suggest a transfer of production technology across borders, thus providing an additional clue about the flourishing commercial and cultural exchanges occurred between Greek colonies and Italic pre-Roman societies.

The SuperCam Instrument Suite on the NASA Mars 2020 Rover: Body Unit and Combined System Tests.

The SuperCam instrument suite provides the Mars 2020 rover, Perseverance, with a number of versatile remote-sensing techniques that can be used at long distance as well as within the robotic-arm workspace. These include laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), remote time-resolved Raman and luminescence spectroscopies, and visible and infrared (VISIR; separately referred to as VIS and IR) reflectance spectroscopy. A remote micro-imager (RMI) provides high-resolution color context imaging, and a microphone can be used as a stand-alone tool for environmental studies or to determine physical properties of rocks and soils from shock waves of laser-produced plasmas. SuperCam is built in three parts: The mast unit (MU), consisting of the laser, telescope, RMI, IR spectrometer, and associated electronics, is described in a companion paper. The on-board calibration targets are described in another companion paper. Here we describe SuperCam's body unit (BU) and testing of the integrated instrument. The BU, mounted inside the rover body, receives light from the MU via a 5.8 m optical fiber. The light is split into three wavelength bands by a demultiplexer, and is routed via fiber bundles to three optical spectrometers, two of which (UV and violet; 245-340 and 385-465 nm) are crossed Czerny-Turner reflection spectrometers, nearly identical to their counterparts on ChemCam. The third is a high-efficiency transmission spectrometer containing an optical intensifier capable of gating exposures to 100 ns or longer, with variable delay times relative to the laser pulse. This spectrometer covers 535-853 nm ( 105 - 7070 cm - 1 Raman shift relative to the 532 nm green laser beam) with 12 cm - 1 full-width at half-maximum peak resolution in the Raman fingerprint region. The BU electronics boards interface with the rover and control the instrument, returning data to the rover. Thermal systems maintain a warm temperature during cruise to Mars to avoid contamination on the optics, and cool the detectors during operations on Mars. Results obtained with the integrated instrument demonstrate its capabilities for LIBS, for which a library of 332 standards was developed. Examples of Raman and VISIR spectroscopy are shown, demonstrating clear mineral identification with both techniques. Luminescence spectra demonstrate the utility of having both spectral and temporal dimensions. Finally, RMI and microphone tests on the rover demonstrate the capabilities of these subsystems as well.

Photogeologic Map of the Perseverance Rover Field Site in Jezero Crater Constructed by the Mars 2020 Science Team.

The Mars 2020 Perseverance rover landing site is located within Jezero crater, a ∼ 50 km diameter impact crater interpreted to be a Noachian-aged lake basin inside the western edge of the Isidis impact structure. Jezero hosts remnants of a fluvial delta, inlet and outlet valleys, and infill deposits containing diverse carbonate, mafic, and hydrated minerals. Prior to the launch of the Mars 2020 mission, members of the Science Team collaborated to produce a photogeologic map of the Perseverance landing site in Jezero crater. Mapping was performed at a 1:5000 digital map scale using a 25 cm/pixel High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) orthoimage mosaic base map and a 1 m/pixel HiRISE stereo digital terrain model. Mapped bedrock and surficial units were distinguished by differences in relative brightness, tone, topography, surface texture, and apparent roughness. Mapped bedrock units are generally consistent with those identified in previously published mapping efforts, but this study's map includes the distribution of surficial deposits and sub-units of the Jezero delta at a higher level of detail than previous studies. This study considers four possible unit correlations to explain the relative age relationships of major units within the map area. Unit correlations include previously published interpretations as well as those that consider more complex interfingering relationships and alternative relative age relationships. The photogeologic map presented here is the foundation for scientific hypothesis development and strategic planning for Perseverance's exploration of Jezero crater.

Long term monitoring of metal pollution in sediments as a tool to investigate the effects of engineering works in estuaries. A case study, the Nerbioi-Ibaizabal estuary (Bilbao, Basque Country).

The Nerbioi-Ibaizabal estuary (Bilbao, Basque Country) suffered an important input of contaminants, including metals and metalloids, between 1875 and 1975. We collected sediments in the tidal part of the river in January 2018 and measured the concentrations of 27 elements in them. At that time, two important construction works were taking place in the area: the extension of the commercial port and the opening of long semi-closed channel. Comparing the current metallic hotspots with the geographical distribution of elements in previous years (2009, 2010 and 2014) showed us that these works seem to have significantly influenced the distribution of toxic elements in the estuary, even if the critical point of the second one is still to arrive with the inundation of the connection to the mainland. Long term pollution monitoring reveals as a powerful tool to check the effects of ongoing engineering works in estuarine environments.

Evidence of mercury sequestration by carbon nanotubes and nanominerals present in agricultural soils from a coal fired power plant exhaust.

Mercury (Hg) in agricultural soils could have negative effects on the environment and the human health. The exposure to high level of Hg through different absorption pathways, such as ingestion and diet through soil-plant system could permanently damage developing foetus of animals and humans. With the aim to assess the potential environmental and health risk and to study the behaviour and fate of Hg from agricultural soils to the environment, 47 soil samples were collected around a thermoelectric power plant in the Santa Catarina (Brazil). The Hg concentration measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) ranged from 0.16 to 0.56 mg kg-1. The distribution obtained by kriging interpolation allowed the identification of the main pollution sources. To see the morphology and composition of soil samples, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM) were used combined with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), showing that the carbon nanotubes and magnetite as nanomineral contributed to Hg retention. The mentioned molecular characterization, and the low Contamination Factors (CF) values obtained, suggested that there is low risk to the food security of the agro-ecosystems area near to the CFPP in the terms of Hg inputs and contamination.

Non-destructive characterisation of the Elephant Moraine 83227 meteorite using confocal Raman, micro-energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence and Raman-scanning electron microscope-energy-dispersive X-ray microscopies.

The application of a non-destructive analytical procedure to characterise the mineral phases in meteorites is a key issue in order to preserve this type of scarce materials. In the present work, the Elephant Moraine 83227 meteorite, found in Antarctica in 1983 and originated from 4 Vesta asteroid, was analysed by micro-Raman spectroscopy, micro-energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence and the structural and chemical analyser (Raman spectroscopy coupled with scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive spectroscopy) working in both point-by-point and image modes. The combination of all these techniques allows the extraction of, at the same time, elemental, molecular and structural data of the studied microscopic area of the meteorite. The most relevant results of the Elephant Moraine 83227 were the finding of tridymite for the first time in a 4 Vesta meteorite, along with quartz, which means that the meteorite suffered high temperatures at a certain point. Moreover, both feldspar and pyroxene were found as the main mineral phases in the sample. Ilmenite, apatite, chromite and elemental sulphur were also detected as secondary minerals. Finally, calcite was found as a weathering product, which was probably formed in terrestrial weathering processes of the pyroxene present in the sample. Besides, Raman spectroscopy provided information about the conditions that the meteorite experienced; the displacements in some feldspar Raman bands were used to estimate the temperature and pressure conditions to which the Elephant Moraine 83227 was subjected, because we obtained both low and high formation temperature feldspar.

Micro-Raman and SEM-EDS analyses to evaluate the nature of salt clusters present in secondary marine aerosol.

Marine aerosol is a complex inorganic and organic chemistry system which contains several salts, mainly forming different type of salt clusters. Different meteorological parameters have a key role in the formation of these aggregates. The relative humidity (%RH), temperature, CO, SO2 and NOx levels and even the O3 levels can promote different chemical reactions giving rise to salt clusters with different morphology and sizes. Sulfates, nitrates and chlorides and even mixed chlorosulfates or nitrosulfates are the final compounds which can be found in environments with a direct influence of marine aerosol. In order to collect and analyze these types of compounds, the use of adequate samplers is crucial. In this work, salt clusters were collected thanks to the use of a self-made passive sampler (SMPS) installed in a 20th century historic building (Punta Begoña Galleries, Getxo, Basque Country, Spain) which is surrounded by a beach and a sportive port. These salt clusters were finally analyzed directly by micro-Raman spectroscopy and Scanning Electron microscopy coupled to Energy Dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDS).